Tag: power

Back To Basics Episode 9: The 5¢ Component That Runs The World

Welcome back to Back To Basics, our journey to master electronics one little bit at a time.

Today we are talking about this tiny piece of plastic and metal that costs about five cents. And yet, without it, the modern world would completely grind to a halt. No smartphones, no internet, no computers.

This is the transistor, and we are going back to basics to uncover how it works, how it changed history, and how you can use it on your workbench.

If you ever felt intimidated by terms like semiconductors, NPN, or MOSFETs, don’t worry. We are going to break down the physical principles simply, look at the two main branches of the transistor family tree, and then see them manipulate electricity in real time.

The Magic Valve


At its absolute core, a transistor is nothing more than an electronic valve. In a plumbing pipe water flows from one end to the other. If you want to stop it or change the flow, you just turn a handle.

Now imagine replacing the mechanical handle with a tiny control wire. By feeding a very small amount of current into that wire, you can control a massive flow of current through the main pipe.

That is the transistor. It can act as a lightning fast switch, or a smooth proportional amplifier.

History


Before 1947, if you wanted to amplify a radio signal or build a computer, you had to use vacuum tubes. They were bulky, fragile, consumed massive amounts of power, and burned out constantly.


Then, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Labs created this: the first point-contact transistor.

It used a small sliver of germanium. By pushing two gold foil contacts incredibly close together on the surface, they discovered they could leverage the physics of semiconductors.


If you remember our episode on diodes, you know that doping silicon with impurities creates P-type regions—containing holes—and N-type regions, which have extra electrons.


By sandwiching these together into three layers instead of two, they create a device where a tiny charge in the middle layer completely changes whether the outer layers conduct electricity or block it entirely. It is rugged, microscopic, and requires zero warm-up time.

Transistor Family Tree


As the technology evolved, two main styles of transistors rose to dominance. On the left, we have the BJT, or Bipolar Junction Transistor. On the right, the FET, or Field-Effect Transistor.


The fundamental difference comes down to how you control them.
BJTs are current-controlled. A small current flowing into the control pin unlocks a larger current through the device.
FETs are voltage-controlled. You just apply an electrical pressure, an electrostatic field, to the control pin to open the gate, requiring almost no continuous current at all.

The following video will show you how they actually work through a couple of practical experiments.

The Essential Starter Kit


Now that you’ve seen how these components function on the test bench, you might be wondering: What should I actually buy to start playing with this myself?


If you go looking at a components distributor, you will find tens of thousands of different part numbers, which is incredibly overwhelming. But the truth is, you only need about four or five transistors types in your stock to build 95% of beginner and intermediate DIY projects. Let’s look at the absolute essentials for your lab drawer.


First up are your low-power BJT signal switches. Your absolute standard defaults are the 2N3904 (NPN) and its complementary partner, the 2N3906 (PNP).

As an alternative, you can get the BC547 and the BC557 fulfilling the exact same role.


These are dirt cheap—literally pennies a piece—and they are fantastic for handling small signals, running classic analog circuits like LED blinkers, driving small 5V relays, or handling basic audio pre-amplification. Pick up a bag of 50 or 100; you will use them all.


Next, you need a small-signal FET. One option is the 2N7000. This is an N-channel MOSFET inside that same tiny plastic housing. Because it is voltage-controlled, it has an incredibly high input impedance. This makes it the absolute perfect choice for interfacing directly with the sensitive I/O pins of an Arduino or a Raspberry Pi to step up signals without drawing power from your microcontroller.


Another option is to get a J201, which is a general purpose amplifier FET, very good for small amplifiers that need an high input impedance.


You can get them both, if you like. My suggestion is to get some for your first project, 10 for example, and if you need something different later on, you can buy a few of the other one, so you slowly increase your stock pile without spending a lot of money at once.


Finally, when you need to step away from small currents and drive something with real power—like heavy LED strips, solenoid valves, or hefty DC motors—you need a power MOSFET in a TO-220 package. Look for the 30N06, capable of driving up to 8A of current, or the STP60NF06, which can go up to 30A.


That metal tab on the back isn’t just for show; it allows you to bolt on a heat-sink to dissipate heat when you are pushing several amps of current through the device.


Having just a handful of these three types of transistors, BJT for small signals, FET or MOSFET for low signals and power MOSFET for the heavy lifting, gives you the freedom to build almost anything.

Conclusion


Whether you are designing a precise analog audio amplifier using the linear region of a BJT, or switching high-current motors at thousands of times a second with a power MOSFET, understanding these three-terminal devices changes how you look at hardware.


If you enjoyed this dive into the basics, hit that like button, subscribe so you don’t miss the next workbench experiment, and let me know in the comments: what’s your favorite go-to transistor for quick prototypes?


Happy experiments!!!

How To Choose A Resistor

How do we choose the right resistor when designing and building an electronic circuit? Here are the major parameters that should be kept into account.

bunch_of_resistors

A resistor is a component made out of a poor conducting material, so that it can offer a resistance to the flow of the current.

You can think to resistance in terms of the obstacles that charges encounter when moving from one end to the other of a conductor. The more obstacles, the higher the resistance. In a metallic wire, for example, the charges are the electrons of the conduction band (see this post and this other one for further details).

In today’s post I would like to address an issue that sometimes is underestimated when designing an electronic circuit: how to choose the right resistor for the job.

Resistors are not all the same. Besides the resistance value that distinguishes one from the other, there are other factors that are important as well.

Here is a list of all the important factors, why they are important, and what are the consequences of not choosing a resistor based on each specific factor.

  • The first thing that comes to mind is the tolerance, which is usually provided on the body of the resistor itself, along with its resistance value.

resistor_color_bands

In color coded resistors, the tolerance is defined by the band that is far away from all the others. In the above picture, for example, it is the gold band, which means that the tolerance is of 5%. In other resistors, where the resistance is explicitly written on the body of the resistor, the tolerance is usually written in clear along with the resistance. More in general, you’ll have to refer to the data sheet provided by the constructor to figure out its tolerance.
Tolerance is an important factor for those circuits that require very precise resistors, like measuring instruments and the like. It is also important when the resistor is used for the polarization of a critical component. If the resistors used in the project have a tolerance that is too high, the whole circuit may not function properly because the actual value of the resistor is too different from the one that was required.

  • Operating Temperature. This depends both from the ambient conditions and by the temperature raise produced by the power dissipation. There are two reasons to keep the temperature range into account. First, resistors slightly change their resistance with the change of the temperature. Using the resistor outside its temperature range would cause a variation greater than the one considered by the tolerance. Second, but not last, when the resistor is traversed by current it heats up. As long as the current stays within a range for which the power dissipation is not exceeded, everything is fine. Otherwise, the resistor can easily overheat and burn.

scorched_resistor

  • Maximum Voltage. Operating a resistor above its maximum voltage rating may cause sparks that would destroy the resistor.

burned_resistor

Resistors used in low power circuits usually have a maximum voltage in the order of at least 100V, and that’s why people usually don’t care or it doesn’t even know that there is such a parameter. In fact, low voltage circuits will normally never exceed the maximum voltage of any resistor. However, there are specific applications where voltages in the circuits can be above the 100V threshold. In such cases, it is important to verify that the resistors used in the circuit can withstand those voltages.

  • Temperature coefficient. This is the parameter that tells us how much the resistance changes per degree Celsius. It depends on the material the resistor is made of, but also on the heat dissipation capability of the component. Some resistors are built with an embedded heat sink to reduce the value of this factor.

power_resistor

This information becomes important in those cases where it is known that the resistor is going to dissipate a considerable amount of power. Based on that, it is possible to figure out if the resistor needs an external heat sink and, eventually, the heat sink thermal resistance.

  • Parasitic Capacitance and Inductance. A real resistor does not have only a resistance but also a very low value of capacity and inductance that may affect its functionality at high frequencies.

equivalent_resistor

These parasitic capacitance and inductance are caused by the physical dimensions and shape of the component and cannot be avoided. When working at high frequencies, these values need to be taken into account, since they will generate both capacitive and inductive reactance that will affect the value of the resistor at the particular frequency it is going to be used.

  • Packaging. This keeps into account where and how the resistor is going to be mounted. It can be a through holes resistor, which is provided with two leads to make the connections. The leads are usually inserted in the holes of a perforated board or of a Printed Circuit Board (PCB). Or, the resistor can be a Surface Mounted one. This has no wires, just two pads that can be directly soldered on a Surface Mounted technology (SMT) PCB. Other factors affecting the packaging include the possibility of attaching it to an external heat sink, and/or the necessity to properly ventilate it, to guarantee enough heat dissipation.